Management Theories Of Henri Fayol

Management Theories Of Henri Fayol This scientific approach paved way to rigid adherence to methods and procedures in which planning and control were exclusively in the hands of managers and the workers had no freedom of choice at work. It also led to increased break-up of labour due to its importance on divisional labour. Many of the human aspects of employment were ignored and it also led to the beginning of boring and repetitive jobs. Compatibility of Taylors theory in Todays World + Selection, training, employee benefits and motivation, which are areas directly relevant to managing people in todays environment are the major contribution from Taylors theory. They are still practiced today and have been the base of every management field. + However, Taylorism cannot be used widely in todays business environment, where the majority of workforce entails to soft skills. The present generation organization is majorly into automation and it runs on innovative ideas and logical thinking. Recent stock prices show that Apple Inc. beats Microsoft at Change Management. The reasons behind the stunning turnaround were found to be the failure of imagination and failure to execute at Microsoft Corporation. If you want to have great people in your company you have to let them make decisions and you have to run by ideas, not hierarchy. Best ideas have to win and good people stay in the company. Steve Jobs, ex-CEO Apple Inc. These innovative ideas and thinking cannot be weighted on any physical scales. They need to be recognized and evaluated on human aspects and one cannot evaluate it with a scientific approach of Taylorism. + Taylors scientific study of the tasks was to bring standardization to work and to overcome the inefficiency of workers in almost all of their daily acts. But in todays business world the standardization of work for a position is almost set in all the major companies across the globe and employees have the choice of adapting and implementing their skills in the best possible way to achieve the goals of the organization. + Division of work develops hierarchical based environment. Though it eases employees and managers to concentrate and work in specified areas, it depreciates the growth of organization to run by new ideas. Current market craves for employees who practice multitasking and have the zest to implement new technologies and eliminates employees who perform single specialized tasks in the same old routine. Henri Fayol Father of Administrative Management [1841-1925] While scientific development emphasised principles to improve worker effectiveness, another branch within the classical school arose, administrative management, with its main contributor being French industrialist Henri Fayol. He is regarded as the father of administrative management as he proposed fourteen principles of management intended to assist managers in determining what to do to manage an organisation more effectively (Rodrigues, 2001). Fayols ideas are still valid in todays organisations and his definitions of management are widely used in this field of study. Compatibility of Fayols Principles of Management in Todays World + Today, employees are much oriented towards challenging and interesting jobs. Though the division of work help employees to specialize specific skills, they seek more challenging opportunity once they expertize on their skills. Also, companies have downsized their staff with people who are multitasking and have the quest to explore beyond their area of expertise. This has helped organizations to stay competitive with best of the employees in the field. + Though Managers are authorized and majorly responsible for a project commencement and its completion, companies rely heavily on employee participation and empowerment for the best outcome. + Matrix organizational structures have ruled over unidirectional layout of organization. Every department in an organization are heavily depended on each other and this brings together employees and managers from different departments to work toward accomplishing organizational goals. + Many of the private organization now practice reward based on performance referred as performance based pay systems. This has motivated employees to bring out the best of their capabilities and potential. + Hierarchical decision making is vanishing in present industries. It has been observed that maximum creativity can be obtained with reduction of hierarchical elements and adapting cooperate culture. Industries now focus on less hierarchical, less formalized and flatter decision making organization structure. + Commitment of an employee is achieved if the organization strongly considers the interest of the employee. In past employees strived for equity, today organizations provide sense of ownership to their committed employees. + Stability of personnel tenure doesnt hold much significance in present organization. Downsizing strategies has flattened many middle management positions and enriched lower-level employees job. This has helped in cost cutting and maintaining committed group of employees. The Global recession which struck 2008-2012, ILO [International Labour Organization] predicted that at least 20 million jobs were lost by the end of 2009- mainly in construction, real estate, financial services, and the auto. This huge figure sets an example of the instability of personnel tenure today and that it depends on many factors of which global economic influence on the organization is one such reason. + Maintaining Esprit de corps is not practical in todays world. Organizations these days hire more and more of temporary and project contractual basis. Moreover, downsizing strategies and prospects of staff cuts has tended to lower the employee morale. Fayol was the first to define management which is generally familiar today as forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate and to control. Fayol also gave much of the basic terminology and concepts, which would be elaborated upon by future researchers, such as division of labour, scalar chain, unity of command and centralization. Many of these principles have been absorbed into modern day organisations, but they were not designed to cope with conditions of rapid change and issues of employee participation in the decision making process of organisations, such as are current today in the early 21st century. Max Weber [Maximilian Karl Emil Weber 1864 -1920] Max Weber, a german sociologist whose bureaucratic studies are found to be very dominant in the present world. Bureaucratic Theory of Management by Weber is said to be the most efficient organizational structure that could be implemented to achieve the best of the organizations goals. Webers bureaucracy was blueprint of dividing responsibility, authority and accountability. Compatibility of Webers Principles of Management in Todays World + Bureaucratic organization is a very rigid type of organization. They are bound by rigid controls and cant find themselves adaptable to changing conditions in the marketplace, industry or legal environment. Vodafone UKs approach to Flexibility Productivity Looking at the business when I arrived, I realised that while Vodafone UKs products and services remained innovative and competitive, its corporate culture was too rigid for the fast-paced market and too autocratic to attract the best new talent. Guy Laurence, CEO Vodafone UK. Vodafone UK idea was that if the company expects its customers to buy its products, it should also be willing to use those products .Vodafone UK reformed their organization by bringing a change in their workplace, and change in their work environment like no assigned offices or desks, no tethered phones or computers, a variety of purpose-built meeting spaces, a tough clean desk and lots of coffee. The results were immediate and intense: from a good reduction in the speed of decision-making, meetings, paper, flights and sales cycle times to a high revenue growth and corporate solutions. + Though senior level employees in such organizational structures can exercise a great deal of control over organizational strategy decisions, front-line employees may receive less satisfaction, as it will make it practically impossible for them to generate the range of strategic ideas possible in a large, interdisciplinary group. This may result in the increase in turnover rates. + Webers three types of legitimate rule are traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational authority. Traditional Authority In this system leaders have a traditional and legitimate right to exercise authorities. Such systems are rigid, do not encourage social change, and are found to be irrational and unreliable. Charismatic Authority Authority is with leaders who influence others by their mission or vision. It greatly depends on such leaders outlook and is highly tentative. They are liable to mislead the followers to a great extent, if they dont have strong doctrines. The US invasion on Iraq Webers authority types help to explain the US invading Iraq in March 2003. It was the charismatic authority, personified by US President George W. Bush which lead to this invasion. He was able to influence the American populace for the urgency to attack Iraq. It is also said that, a majority of Americans were effectively influenced by Bush in whatever he did. Though there was a confliction in legal as we as charismatic authority internationally, as Bush exhibited international law and the UN by such an illegal act. Even though this invasion was illegal, the international community and legal authority of the UN were not able to enforce international law or to stop the US invasion. Rational Legal Authority Authority empowered by legal and natural law. This authority has found strong roots in the modern state, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary associations. Weber as we study was strongly influenced by his mothers moral absolutists ideas and opinions at a very young age. He followed the universal cultural history very closely and also enjoyed reading the classics. The strong roots of his expression of bureaucracy is visible in the fact that he was bored with his secondary education, that he has often described as very unchallenging. Conclusion The various management principles had been laid down since the later part of the 19th century. Applications of the approaches were mostly based on the cultural, political and environmental requirements. The real challenge of implementing the approaches was least witnessed till the late 20th century. The last 10-15 years leaders and managers involved the importance of Change as a practice. While implementing Change management within any organization, two factors that seem to be inevitable are Sustainability and Performance Management. Sustainability and the need for change: What does our Organization stand for? What are we good at, and do we need to change? How can we change? Will we change our Organization? Managers must evaluate their organizations and business by asking and answering to these questions, if they have a regard to sustain in an era that has been largely influenced by strategic thinking. The 2010 United Nations Global Compact-Accenture CEO study (UN Global Compact and Accenture, 2010) found that 93 per cent of CEOs now believe sustainability will be critical to the future success of their companies. A critical mass of business leaders, 80 per cent, believes a tipping point will be reached within the next 15 years when sustainability will be automatically embedded in the core business and strategies of most companies, and 54 per cent believe this tipping point could be reached within the next ten years. There is thus a significant shift in thinking with profound implications for questions of organisational purpose, strategy, brand, competence and culture globally.(Journal of Organizational Change Management, Carla Miller, Vol. 25 Iss: 4 pp. 489 500, 2012). Performance Management: It must be a continuous process and an integrated part of any manager employee relationship. One of the most important aspect of performance management is setting challenging goals. In practice, as we learn goals in a modern world are contextual or situational. Bibliographies Journals Journal of Organizational Change Management, Carla Miller, Vol. 25 Iss: 4 pp. 489 500, 2012 Bonini, S., Go ¨rner, S. and Jones, A. (2010), How companies manage sustainability, McKinsey Global Survey Results Hind, P., Wilson, A. and Lenssen, G. (2009), Developing leaders for sustainable business, Corporate Governance, Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 7-20. Patrick Hereford, 2003, Case study on The Eurostar and The Channel Tunnel. Mohd Dali Nuradli Ridzwan Shah Bin, Mudasir Hamdi Hakeim, Abdul Hamid Suhaila, 2008, International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management in Performance of Shariah compliance companies in the plantation industry, Volume: 1 Issue: 2. Walid El Ansari, Edward Andersson, 2011, Beyond value? Measuring the costs and benefits of public participation in Journal of Integrated Care Volume: 19 Issue: 6 Maria C.A. Balatbat, Cho-Yi Lin and David G. Carmichael, Management Efficiency Performance of Construction Businesses in Australian Data, Sydney, Australia. Conference Paper Michel-Alexandre Cardin, 2009, Case Study on the Value of Information and Flexibility in Oil Development Projects, Inspired from the paper by Babajide et al. (2009). Babajide, A. 2001, Real Options Analysis as a Decision Tool in Oil Field Developments. Master of Science Thesis in Systems Design and Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. http://ardent.mit.edu/real_options/Real_opts_papers/Babajide_Thesis_FINAL.pdf Babajide, A., de Neufville, R., and Cardin, M.-A. 2009. Integrated Method for Designing Valuable Flexibility in Oil Development Projects. SPE Projects, Facilities, and Construction. SPE-122710-PA. (In press; posted 19 February 2009). Electronic Books, Monographs and databases Electronic Book Manshu, 2010, what is IRR and how is it calculated? In Investments Samuel L. Baker, 2000, Perils of the Internal Rate of Return A Chapter in a book Chris Hendrickson, 1998, Fundamental Concepts for Owners, Engineers, Architects and Builder in Project Management for Construction; http://pmbook.ce.cmu.edu/ Chapter 6: 6.5 Websites Investopedia What are the disadvantages of using net present value as an investment criterion? Chris Gallant March 27,2006 http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/06/npvdisadvantages.asp#ixzz1pN2Ci2FZ Investopedia CFA level 1 Study Guide, Chapter 11, Lesson 11.4 http://www.investopedia.com/exam-guide/cfa-level-1/corporate-finance/advantages-disadvantages-npv-net-present-value-irr-internal-rate-of-return.asp#axzz1pIdM5VmT .

Yahweh: The Powerful, Soverseign Being God Essay -- text, behind, fron

Since the beginning of time, Yahweh has been illustrated as a powerful, sovereign being, and as the creator of good and evil. This characterization of God is presented through a methodological analysis of the three worlds- world behind the text, world in front of the text, and world of the text- in Isaiah 6 and 1 Kings 22. The world behind the text is the era of Ahab's ruling. The king of Aram and Ahab, the king of Israel created a treaty upon their kingdoms. However, in the third year of their treaty, Ahab and his vassal, King Jehosphaphat, realize Ramoth-gilead belonged to the Israelite kingdom. Before seeking battle, King Ahab calls upon his 400 prophets to determine if the kingdom was in favor in battle. However, King Jehosphaphat doubts Ahab's royal court. Hesitant of Micaiah's unfavored predictions of Ahab, the king summons Micaiah. Micaiah's relationship with the other 400 prophets was stable, until the messenger of King Ahab tries to persuade Micaiah to lie to the king, 1 However, Micaiah speaks the truth and predicts failure for Ahab. Because of Micaiah's faithfulness to Yahweh, the 400 prophets resent Micaiah in fear that his prophecy is accurate. Fulfilling Micaiah's prophecy and the Lord's intention, Ahab is defeated and killed in war. Micaiah and Isaiah's revelation of God are analyzed in the world in front of the text. Isaiah's prophet "call" and the account of Micaiah's prophecy has similarities and difference between the two texts. Isaiah 6 and Micaiah 22 passages describe Yahweh enthroned at divine council. A judgment is being held regarding the future of the human realm. The two prophets, Isaiah and Micaiah, witness the discussion of this issue between God and the heavenly council. The Lord asks for assista... ...t. In 1 Kings, Micaiah foretells that 8Cyrus carried out the Lord's mission and effected Israel's salvation; he became the new king of Israel, and new shepherd for the Israelites. The Lord is recognized as being the creator and controller of nature and history, 9 God is the maker of weal and woe, good and evil. Yahweh creates a temporary evil to entice Ahab to seek war. He places a lying spirit in the mouths of his prophets to support his decision to battle Aram. Because of this temptation and evil, Ahab is defeated and killed at war. The two prophet's accounts of God have structural similarities; however, they both contain differences. In Isaiah's vision of God, He is illustrated as a powerful and sovereign being. Whereas in Micaiah's passage, Yahweh is portrayed as a creator of good and evil. Isaiah 45 combines these two characteristics of God to better explain.

Reading Books and Using Computers Essay

Reading books can take us to any places and time. Just read and let your imagination explore. It also can give us further knowledge to the things that surrounds us. And it help us in our comprehension, practices our fluency, and many others. It can also tour us to the Egypt, Greece, Spain and many place here on earth without wasting money, and energy. It also takes us beyond the outer space, galaxies, meteors, stars and throughout the universe with no needing of rocket. And lastly, it let us meet Romeo & Juliet, Achilles, Julius Caesar, Cleopatra, and of course our God and savior Jesus Christ. All information about them is come from books. We will never know them without the books. Some of them maybe real and others may be just a tale. Book is really our friend; it could take us, meet people we desire. But nowadays, because reading books is boring and you have to read for almost a week or month, students today are so lazy to that and they always have the speech of â€Å"it’s a waste of time†. Indeed, students treat their books as their enemy and just remember them when they have an exam or quizzes. It’s so sad that books had almost been forgotten by students that became friends by their ancestors once. see more:essays on computers Using Computer is widely practice today’s generation. It is almost needed in the society. You can also be called an illiterate when you don’t know how to use it, because even a 7 years old kid can use the computer. Computer is easy to use, reliable, fast, and consume a short period of time. And today you don’t need to have to read a book for almost a week and widen your imagination to know the content of the story, by just internet and a â€Å"YouTube† website, and a click you could watch your desired novel instantly. With moving, speaking, singing, dancing, fighting, and many others action that books cannot do. That’s why students are interested in using computer because of its colorful and attractive features that very appealing to generation of students today. As far today 3D is the most high tech feature that produce by computers which is the reason why student almost forget the books already. And you could finish the novel for only 2 – 3 hours and have enough time to spend it with your love ones or your hubby. Also, you can direct search information rather than in the books. And lastly it can let you communicate to the people in other countries, to your families, friends, or not. Computers are widely needed by each in every one of us. Not to follow the â€Å"new fashion line† we can say. But, not to be left by today’s life and â€Å"rules† especially in applying a job that mostly all job require knowledge in using computers and can have the power to compete to the world. Books and Computers are both helpful to our life and living. They are both source of information that helps us know the things we wanted to know. They give information, give more knowledge and help us to satisfy our curiosity. They are both take us to the other places here in the world and to the stars in the universe and to the place we only see in our dreams. Indeed they are both needed and have to be needed. But, lately as the world innovate to high tech world, that it’s like â€Å"life is just a click†, books have been forgotten and keep dusty in the library, while computers had been more needed by the society. Library was very quite not just because of its policy â€Å"Keep Quite† but there are no one there except the staff or the librarian. While internet cafà © were so hot, noisy and overcrowded. This study had been conducted to know the best and effective source of information between computers and books. And, the common reasons behind it. And lastly, to know why this phenomena is happening in our society, world and universe today. Objectives: 1. To enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of reading books and using computers. 2. To know the effective one between books and computer. 3. To know which students prefer between books and computers as their source of information. Hypothesis: 1. Reading books will have so many advantages with no disadvantages, while using computer will have more advantages than books but with many disadvantages too. 2. The effective one is using computer because its fast, easy, reliable and consume only a short period of time rather than books. 3. The effective one is using computer because of its multi-purposes and uses that are effective to the learning of the student. Significance/Importance of the Study This study may be useful to the following: School Administrators. The result of this study may be used by school administrator to know what kind of source information the teacher and the school staff that may use for a better and effective teaching. Teachers. The study might help the teacher enhance their chosen technique in teaching so that they will deliver their lesson to student clearly and understandable. School Librarians. This research might help the librarian facilitate will the library as the source of effective and reliable room of information through books and computer with internet. Students. This study will let students know the importance of books and computer, their advantages and disadvantages so that they may limit their self to use them, and to know the kind of source of information they will use in a specific problem. Parents. The Parents will likewise be benefited from the result of the study in a way that they can guide their children for using a such information in the right time and place, and give limit them when they over using it. Future Researchers. The results of this study will give the future researchers the basis of their own research in using computer and reading books. And how both source of information help us. Definitions of Terms Source of Information Comprehension Internet Website Fluency Scope and Delimitation This is an experimental study of selected 30 first year college students of Capiz State University Poblacion Campus during the school year 2012 – 2013.

The Importance of Childrens Play - 1653 Words

The importance of play in young children cannot be stressed enough. It has be shown numerous times through research the benefits that play can have. When you think of children playing it brings a smile to your face. The importance of play definitely plays a big role in a child’s life especially between the ages of 5 to 7. What does â€Å"play† mean? There are many different types of definitions because everyone â€Å"plays† differently. Play â€Å"engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose† (Oxford Dictionary). The focus on what types of specific toys and games that will help not only with socialization, but with cognitive and social learning skills. These types of skills are what children need to excel and improve in multiple areas of life. What will be defined is what types of play children between the ages 5 to 7 should participate in. Let’s start at the beginning when a baby is born, the brain is like a sculpture waiting to be molded. It has been known that a childs brain develops very quickly in the early years of its life. There are all different types of play whether it is set up or free play it definitely ensures that one’s child will get a wide variety of experiences. Children can almost play with anything o0r anywhere, its almost as â€Å"play is a child’s work, play is important† (McNamee-Anderson, 2010). Some types of play that children should be participating in during the ages of 5 to 7 are onlooker play, parallel play,Show MoreRelatedThe Importance of Scaffolding in Children’s Play2069 Words   |  9 Pagesbeen used to promote children’s social and cognitive development is scaffolding. Scaffolding generally refers to the process through which adults facilitate children’s learning by enabling them achieve a level of ability beyond the child’s capacity at the time (Scarlett, 2005). This essay will discuss how scaffolding facilitates and supports meaning making in children’s play. 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Second, integrated curriculum is a curriculum that designs to think as a whole child in terms of child’s skills, abilities, knowledge and in different areas of study that will support their learning. Third, emergent curriculum is a process of curriculum based on teacher’s observation and children’s interests, learning, and the ability to make

Government Is Involved Too Much Into Health And Human...

I personally believe that government is involved too much into health and human services. When I see the percentage of the funds that go into health and human services it’s nice to see that the government recognizes the importance of keeping its citizens healthy and taking action to provide citizens with Medicaid and Medicare. The issue I have is the complexity and aggravation it causes the majority when they go a little to overboard. In my opinion its perfect when the government focuses on significant issues that affect the masses that helps everyone. In the past it would have been acceptable for state and local government to direct a huge portion of its funds into dealing with hookworm, an infection that in places like Georgia affected a total of 51.7 percent of people. This was a disease that affected everyone no matter what social status or life choices you had, in that time period. It was effective that they completed public work projects and worked on providing everyone with sanitary conditions and hospitals. Personally I think it’s the governments job to protect the people even if it is not an economically smart decision. When government is getting to personal and aggressive by forcing people to pay for Medicare or Medicaid in which if the person doesn’t not get Medicare or Medicaid results in them getting a separate tax to being doing a little too much. I think that the government crosses the line some times in the amount of benefits that they are giving out to theShow MoreRelatedMedicare Funding Crisis1692 Words   |  7 PagesDonnie Tatar University of Michigan HSM544: Health Policy and Economics As the newly appointed chief of staff I have been tasked with responding to a proposal for reducing Medicare expenditures by enrolling participants in HMO. 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Importance of Computer Literacy - 3014 Words

Students` Attitudes towards Computer: Statistical Types and their Relationship with Computer Literacy Diana Saparniene Siauliai University, Lithuania Gediminas Merkys Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania Gintaras Saparnis Siauliai University, Lithuania ABSTRACT. The results of the diagnostic analysis on students’ computer literacy are presented in the article. The study involves students from Lithuanian universities and colleges (N=1004). Based on the study results attempts are made to identify and define the existing statistical types of students in connection with their attitudes towards a computer (emotional – motivational relationship with a computer) as well as to disclose some link with the factual computer†¦show more content†¦Otherwise, students’ positive feelings (enthusiasm, pleasure, satisfaction, etc.) help to do difficult tasks and achieve good academic results. The analysis of the scientific literature has proved that the impact of besides the analysed non-cognitive personality traits on computer literacy level has not been sufficiently studied. No research has been aimed at answering the question whether significant identification of statistical types in the student’s population is based on differences in computer literacy and other important variables. Mainly this article deals with the scientific problem related to the hypothetical presumption on the impact of non-cognitive personality traits - attitudes on the peculiarities of computer literacy in the system of higher education. The article deals with the study of students’ computer literacy one of the aims being – to identify and define the existing statistical types of students in connection with their attitudes towards a computer (emotional – motivational relationship with a computer) as well as to disclose some link with the factual computer literacy using multidimensional statistical methods. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPIRICAL BASIS The empirical-experimental part of the present study is based on the series of diagnostic studies with the total number of 1004 surveyed students. They represented 4Show MoreRelatedImportance Of Computer Literacy994 Words   |  4 PagesWhy computer skills are important As someone with extensive computer literacy, I understand the importance of being able to be efficient with the use of computers. Whether it is at school, or at the workplace, the struggles and inefficiency I see people have with computers results in a lot of wasted time and effort. 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General information literacy is important for any level of IT manager, as he or sheRead MoreWhat Ive Learned about Literacy Essay example943 Words   |  4 Pagesaffirmed knowledge gained both from my undergraduate studies as well as additional research I have independently completed on literacy. The first week of this class required me to think about how I define literacy. I believe that know that I have completed this course, I am better able to summarize and identify my definition of literacy. Like Tompkins (2010), I define literacy as the ability to read and write inside and outside of the classroom. Comprehension is a large piece of reading. Many studentsRead MoreLanguage Differences Between Language And Language1247 Words   |  5 Pagesthemselves have an unintentional bias when interacting with students of different economic status thus not affording the same opportunities to all students, resulting in the status of one student’s achievement being disadvantaged. (REFERENCE). 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People now can get the information from any spots on the planets easily through many televisions channels. Also, gaining huge amount of knowledge from every part around the world is provided by computer networks. Computer networks facilitate the communications as well. Beside cr eate new opportunities, technological and demographic evolutions provide significant challenges to the people. Communicating successfully in another language depends on shifting theRead MoreThe Causes And Effects Of Computer Literacy940 Words   |  4 PagesAs someone with extensive computer literacy, I understand the importance of being able to be efficient with the use of computers. Whether it is at school, or at the workplace, the struggles and inefficiency I see people have with computers results in a lot of wasted time and effort. 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Sugar and Mood in Children free essay sample

White and Wolraich study based on reports that dietary sucrose and sweetener aspartame produce hyperactivity and behavior problems among children. Conclusion- no impact of increased intake on behavior or cognitive function, some may have idiosyncratic or rare allergic reactions. Even studies using children diagnosed with ADD showed no differences in activity, behavior and cognitive performance in response to increased sugar. In summary, clinical investigations have not demonstrated significant effect of sucrose on aggressive or disruptive behavior, motor activity or cognitive performance in children. Then how does sugar intake affect mood? Food-Mood link – Every dip or rise in moon, every hunger pang every thought, every response is orchestrated by these nerve cells and their neurotransmitters. At least 70 neurotransmitters have been identified that regulate nerve function, including memory, appetite, mental function, mood, movement and the wake-sleep cycle. For eg, too little norepinephrine causes depression, too little acetylcholine results in memory loss, insulin increases food intake, opioids (endorphins) increase fat intake, dopamine inhibits appetite, serotonin – low –increases carb intake, high-decreases carb intake, estrogen – increases food intake. These neurotransmitters housed in central regions of the brain such as the hypothalamus also regulate reproduction and communicate closely with other brain centers such as amygdala that control emotions. Our food preferences, desires, cravings and loves are hardwired into our basic survival instincts for survival, safety and love. What you eat directly and indirectly affect all these nerve chemicals which inturn influence moods, energy level, food cravings, stress levels, and sleep habits. For eg, nerve chemical histamine is built from the amino acid histadine. Histamine is imt in regulating alertness, brain energy metabolism, release of hormones; appetite and coordination. Vitamins and minerals work as assembly line workers in the manufacture of neurotransmitter. Some neurotransmitters become more or less active depending on dietary intake. Either overconsuming or dramatically restricting a particular food such as fats or carbs can trigger imbalances in neurotransmitters that can contribute to depression, irritability, food cravings, mood swings, and thinking problems. Nutrients such as protein, zinc, vit B6, iodine, folic acid, and vit B12 are essential for the normal development of the nervous system. Food additives such as MSG an chemicals such as tyramine found in aged cheese can influence brain activity and result in mood changes or interfere with the manufacture or release of neurotransmitters. Others can block or alter†¦ and can affect mood and thinking. The manufacture of most neurotransmitters is controlled by the brain. But some are directly influenced by what you eat, especially amino acids. Eg tryptophan found in meat and milk, is a building block for serotonin and dopamine and norepinephrine are influenced by the amt of tyrosine in the diet. Eg a person consumes a protein rich snack or mean, blood level of all amino acids rise, blood amino acids compete for entry into the brain, only moderate amt of serotonin are made and stored, person feels depressed, irritable and or carves a carb rich snack. In contrast, a carb rich meal triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas. This hormone causes most amino acids floating in the blood to be absorbed into the body’s cells, except tryptophan which remains in the bloodstream. With competition removed tryptophan enters the brain freely causing serotonin levels to rise. High serotonin levels increases feelings of calmness or drowsiness, improve sleep patterns, increase pain tolerance, reduce cravings for carb rich foods. Binge eating is often linked to stress. A person is stressed, follows a restrictive diet or skips meals. The adrenals release corticosterone. Corticosterone reaches the hypothalamus, hypothalamus releases NPY (neuropeptide Y), a person craces carb rich stratches and sweets. Elevated endorphins also contribute to a pregnant woman’s longings for certain foods (inconjunction with the female hormone progesterone) uncontrollable cravings the 2 wks before her period, sweeth tooth during times of stress, cravings of alcohol in an alcoholic, overeating in obese people, bing eaters and bulimics. The nerve chemicals that dictate your food preference and mood are not housed exclusively in the brain. Some are located in the digestive tract, pancreas, adrenal glands and fat tissue. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone found in both the brain and the small intestine that aids in digestion and contributes to a feeling of satiation. Estrogen in women enhances CCK effectiveness. More CCK released, the slower you digest food and faster you feel full so less you eat. Studies indicate low levels of CCK in people with eating disorders such as bulimia. In contrast AIDS patients have high level of CCK and low endorphin levels so they lose their appetites. It is likely that enterostatin, serotonin, galanin and endorphins work in concert to raise and lower cravings for fatty foods from salad dressing and mayo to meat and chocolate. Numerous scientific studies have shown that the menstrual cycle influences food intake. Healthy women consume 90-500 kcal/day during the luteal phase than during the follicular phase- increase in carb, fat and protein intake. Vit c consumption is lower and increase of intakes of vit D, riboflavin, potassium, phosphorous, and magnesium have been reported. A low-fat diet has been associated with decreased bloating. Caffeine consumption has been associated with an increased prevalence and severity of premenstrual symptoms. There is some evidence that a high-carb low protein meal will improve mood in women with PMS, but few data show that this same effect will occur in healthy women or in women with psychoogic disorders such as depression. Nutritionists in particular should help women focus on managing their food cravings and incorporating the craved foods into a balanced, healthful diet. Numerous biologic factors are postulated to cause food craving. Evidence exists that food deprivation, including self-imposed restriction such as dieting leads to craving. However, decreased cravings have occurred in obese people on low caloric or very low caloric diets. Food cravings have also been attributed to a requirement for a specific nutrient lacking in the diet. For eg Craving of chocolate can be attributed to its magnesium content, although scientific experiments do not generally support this view. It has been suggested that certain foods are craved because they contain substances that influence brain neurochemistry to create a feeling of well-being. Bioactive substances such as tryptophan and carbohydrate both thought to increase brain serotonin levels. Chocolate contains several biologically active compounds including the methylxanthines caffeine and theobromine, precursors phenylaline and tyrosine and biogenic amines phenylethylamine and tyramine. After evaluating the literature in this area, Rogers commented that serious reviews have found little support for the hypothesis that chocolate craving is related to psychoactive constituents. So what does chocolate do to us – It has been suggested that chocolate consumption may elevate mood because it contains several biologically active compounds. Chocolate is a rich source of antioxidants the substances that can block cellular and arterial damage caused by oxidation reactions that go on endlessly in the body. According to researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas , the same antioxidants called Flavinoids found in red wine that protects from heart disease and cancer. Chocolate contains other chemicals that have brain activity tryptophan, the building block of serotonin, a relaxation-inducing neurotransmitter and phenylethylamine, a stimulant related to amphetamine that can improve mood in some depressed people. Phenylethylamine is the chemical released in the brain when people become infatuated or fall in love, and it has bestowed upon chocolate the aura of an aphrodisiac. – New York Times article Valentine to Dark Chocolate, but go easy. Sweet Taste of Beating Sugar Habit – Hubert Herring – I should note that many experts pooh pooh the idea of sugar addiction. It is â€Å"hard to conceive of an ‘addiction’ to a chemical that occurs naturally in all of us,† says Dr Walsh, professor of psychiatry at Columbia. But a sweet taste is certainly â€Å"rewarding† he said â€Å"the brain circuits that are involved in the recognition of reward are the same ones (or at least overlap with the ones) that are involved in addiction† Carb Craving – double blind placebo controlled test of self medication hypothesis – Corsica, Spring Every third testing day, participants were asked to self administer the beverage they preferred based on its previous mood effect. Results showed that, when rendered mildly dysphoric, carbohydrate cravers chose the carbohydrate beverage significantly more often than the protein-rich beverage and reported the prior produced greater mood improvement. The carb beverage was perceived as more palatable by the carbohydrate cravers, although not by independent taste testers. This study supports the existence of a carbohydrate craving syndrome in which carbohydrate self administration improves mildly dysphoric mood. The carb craving syndrome is often defined as a disorder of disturbed appetite and mood, irresistible desire to consume sweet or starchy foods in response to negative states (Wurtman 1990). Mood improvement following carb ingestion is thought to occur via a typtophan mediated increase in brain serotonin potentially alleviating a functional deficiency in brain serotonin and thus serving as self-medication (Spring, Wurtman etc) A significant design flaw in many studies has been that the high carb and high protein foods have differed not only in macronutrient content but it in hedonic and sensory value with the carb options perceived as being more hedonically appealing. A final important design flaw has been the failure to standardize the timing of testing in relation to the female menstrual cycle. Menstrually related effects on mood, appetite and food craving are well-documented and represent a potential confound to the study of macronutrient effects on mood. Carb craving appears to be a predictor of poor response to weight loss treatment – need to understand the mechanisms associated with overweight as well as difficulties with weight loss and weight loss maintenance – many people attribute their weight management difficulties to carb craving, carb craving has been associated with weight increase (spring.. ), there is an epidemic of overweight and obesity in the US. Carbohydrate cravers chose to self administer carb significantly more often than the taste caloric matched protein rich balanced nutrient alternative- according to Corsica, Spring study. The effect of the mood manipulation was analyzed via repeated ANOVA with POMS dysphoria score as the deoebdebt variable and time.. Dysphoria at manipulation check was significantly associated with increased carb craving across all testing days. We tested whether individuals who self-describe as carb cravers and met rig criteria for carb craving would demonstrate carb preference and mood enhance in a double-blind.. trial. Our results demonstrate that in a highly controlled environment, the carb craver appears to successfully and saliently self-medicate mildly dysphoric mood via carb ingestion. Study included participants who were depressed or binge eaters because we believe that this enhances the generalizability of these findings to the population of carb cravers, although this may also introduce additional variability and a potential confound. Post hoc analyses showed that binge eaters didn’t not contribute mood, choice, hunger or palatability data that was significantly different than the other participants. CONCLUSION –disturbed mood and eating patters have consistently been observed among individuals labeled â€Å"carb cravers† The self- administration of carb may be reinforced in car cravers by reduction of unpleasant mood states or possibly by perception of palatability, a pattern that with repetition may result in overweight and obesity. These findings suggest a need to assist carb cravers in identify alternative ways of alleviating dysphoric mood or discomfort other than high caloric carb intake. Chose low calorie carb rich snack foods, increase physical activity or employ cognitive behavioral techniques to reduce dysphoric mood (Spring et al. 1997) Carb craving has been viewed from a biological perspective, it has been suggested that cravings are an expression of an energy or specific nutrient requirement, or that addiction is explained by the presence of a naturally occurring psychoactive compound in the food. Study explains an overview of appetite control and dietary restraint as background to an integrated â€Å"biopsychosocial† perspective on food craving and addiction (chocoholism) Individuals vary in their vulnerability to addiction due to factors such as socioeconomic circumstances and inherited traits – evidence og genetic predisposition to alcoholism and substances vary in their addictive potential according to their capacity to produce positive psychoactive effects and neuroadaptive changes that occur with continued substance use. Why chocolate and other foods might have a relatively high addictive potential. Psychoactive constituents of chocolate- Food craving and self-reported food addiction and cognitive influences of eating. Ambivalence about certain foods that leads to attempts to resist eating them and the heed to provide explanation of why this is difficult and sometimes fails. This does not mean that we regard biological effects of eating are unimportant but merely these form only part of the determinants of human eating behavior and the experiences accompanying eating. Chocolate â€Å"Nice but Naughty† – considered unhealthy food, lacking in nutritional value and stigmatized with overeating and obesity. Attribution – Call me chocoholic, or I am addicted etc.. makes it ok to eat it. Moreishness – â€Å"Causing a desire for more†. There is also a wide overlap of the brain mechanisms underlying the rewarding effects of food and drugs and foods are, like drugs of abuse, strong reinforcers. It may reasonable to label the compulsive eating seen in bulimia and binge eating disorder to addiction, however vast majority should not be viewed that way. Crucially eating does not appear to produce powerful neuroadaptive effects, including associated withdrawal effects, which are central to drug addiction. Self report food craving and â€Å"addiction† gives a prominent role to the psychological processes of ambivalence and attribution, operating together with normal mechanisms of appetite control, the hedonic affects of certain foods and socially and culturally determined perceptions of the appropriate intakes and uses of those foods. – Rogers and SMIT article Megan Brooks article – According to researchers several nutrient factors that could be linked to mood, such as increased caffeine, fat, carb and energy intake, bore no significant correlation with mood symptoms, suggesting relative specificity of chocolate finding. Gordon Parker, MD, PhD, of the School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Australia †¦these personality styles that underpin chocolate cravings reflect â€Å"neuroticism or what we would call emotional dysregulation† Study by Parker, Parer and Brotchie on Mood effects of chocolate suggest that chocolate can provide its own hedonistic reward by satisfying cravings but when consumed as a comfort eating or emotional eating strategy is more likely to be associated with prolongation rather than cessation of a dysphoric mood. Eg – Chocolate has the capacity to lift spirits to create highs and make people feel good. In an earlier review of atypical depression and its constituent feature of hyperphagia (Parker et al) we noted the capacity of carb, including chocolate, to have a comforting effect to also promote ‘feel good’ sensations through the release of multiple gut and brain peptides. Others have argued that carb craving in atypical depression and in seasonal affective disorder is a form of self medication and in having an impact on brain neurotransmitters have antidepressant effects. Orosensory properties of chocolate and the pleasure principle – morishness – once you start you cant stop. Palatability is determined by innate responses such as inborn taste preferences for sweets, fat and salt but a dislike for bitter tastes, and by learning. Post ingestive effects increase gradually with the amount eaten and eating stops when they outweigh the orosensory effects. Craving is experienced during abstinence but ‘moreishness’ is experienced while eating. Heightened responsiveness to increased palatability is often cited as a major factor in the development of obesity and even rats on a highly palatable high-fat or ‘supermarket’ diet will overeat to the point of obesity. Chocolate provides preferred tastes and texture they have innate appeal and the combinations increase the hedonic rating challenging the satiety ceiling that might otherwise apply. Orosensory properties of chocolate outweigh more simple explanations of its role in appetite and satiety. If the appeal is the unique sensory combination of chocolate then chocolate is the only way to satisfy that craving (Michener and Rozin) Another view regards craving for chocolate and carb as a homeostatic response to dietary deficiencies. Emotional eaing – Lyman (1982) has observed that food preference is altered across a range of mood states with preference for ‘junk food’ increased during negative mood states and preference for healthy foods during increasing during positive mood states. A review by Ganley indicated that stress associated eating is more common in those overweight or obese but that mixed results in the research means that direction of association is unclear. Natural tendency during stress is decreased food intake reflecting activation of the sympathetic nervous system (Schachter et al) whereby blood is diverted from the digestive system and other systems not required for defense. Evidence- Meisel et al showed a marked increase in body weight in female Syrian hamsters when socially stressed by being caged, finding greatly enlarged adrenal glands. Morely et al. showed increase in sucrose ingestion in response to stress. Although eating when stressed is inconsistent with the intrinsic physiological stress reponse, t occurs in real life and is supported empirically with stress thought to disrupt restraint and post-ingestional satiety feedback. Finally a review by Reid and Hammersley examining all studies on human subjects since 1983 dealing with the effects of carbs on arousal found half the studies reported some effect on alertness after consumption of a carb snack with individuals feeling relaxed or sleepy, but no specific effect on mood. In summary, it appears that emotional eating fails to produce any real or lasting benefit to psychological and mood states and that increased or repeated emotional eating may actually contribute to mood dysphoria. Chocolate craving is driven by a desire for hedonic reward and dopamine (responsible for reward) is the predominant neurotransmitter released after eating chocolate for the purpose of a pleasurable sensory experience. In contrast emotional eating is characterized by carb craving and is motivated by desire for the comforting effect of opioids (endorphins) to alleviate dysphoria and other negative states. Evidence that infusing antagonist naloxone reduced caloric intake in binge eaters, as well as the taste preference for sweet high-fat foods such as biscuits and chocolate in both binge eaters and in controls. Benton (2002) reported that poor mood stimulates eating of palatable high carb food leading to endorphin release. No chocolate substitute when crave chocolate (Rozin) but when crave carb hen any sweet fat food was consumed. Chocolate produces unique effect