Sugar and Mood in Children free essay sample

White and Wolraich study based on reports that dietary sucrose and sweetener aspartame produce hyperactivity and behavior problems among children. Conclusion- no impact of increased intake on behavior or cognitive function, some may have idiosyncratic or rare allergic reactions. Even studies using children diagnosed with ADD showed no differences in activity, behavior and cognitive performance in response to increased sugar. In summary, clinical investigations have not demonstrated significant effect of sucrose on aggressive or disruptive behavior, motor activity or cognitive performance in children. Then how does sugar intake affect mood? Food-Mood link – Every dip or rise in moon, every hunger pang every thought, every response is orchestrated by these nerve cells and their neurotransmitters. At least 70 neurotransmitters have been identified that regulate nerve function, including memory, appetite, mental function, mood, movement and the wake-sleep cycle. For eg, too little norepinephrine causes depression, too little acetylcholine results in memory loss, insulin increases food intake, opioids (endorphins) increase fat intake, dopamine inhibits appetite, serotonin – low –increases carb intake, high-decreases carb intake, estrogen – increases food intake. These neurotransmitters housed in central regions of the brain such as the hypothalamus also regulate reproduction and communicate closely with other brain centers such as amygdala that control emotions. Our food preferences, desires, cravings and loves are hardwired into our basic survival instincts for survival, safety and love. What you eat directly and indirectly affect all these nerve chemicals which inturn influence moods, energy level, food cravings, stress levels, and sleep habits. For eg, nerve chemical histamine is built from the amino acid histadine. Histamine is imt in regulating alertness, brain energy metabolism, release of hormones; appetite and coordination. Vitamins and minerals work as assembly line workers in the manufacture of neurotransmitter. Some neurotransmitters become more or less active depending on dietary intake. Either overconsuming or dramatically restricting a particular food such as fats or carbs can trigger imbalances in neurotransmitters that can contribute to depression, irritability, food cravings, mood swings, and thinking problems. Nutrients such as protein, zinc, vit B6, iodine, folic acid, and vit B12 are essential for the normal development of the nervous system. Food additives such as MSG an chemicals such as tyramine found in aged cheese can influence brain activity and result in mood changes or interfere with the manufacture or release of neurotransmitters. Others can block or alter†¦ and can affect mood and thinking. The manufacture of most neurotransmitters is controlled by the brain. But some are directly influenced by what you eat, especially amino acids. Eg tryptophan found in meat and milk, is a building block for serotonin and dopamine and norepinephrine are influenced by the amt of tyrosine in the diet. Eg a person consumes a protein rich snack or mean, blood level of all amino acids rise, blood amino acids compete for entry into the brain, only moderate amt of serotonin are made and stored, person feels depressed, irritable and or carves a carb rich snack. In contrast, a carb rich meal triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas. This hormone causes most amino acids floating in the blood to be absorbed into the body’s cells, except tryptophan which remains in the bloodstream. With competition removed tryptophan enters the brain freely causing serotonin levels to rise. High serotonin levels increases feelings of calmness or drowsiness, improve sleep patterns, increase pain tolerance, reduce cravings for carb rich foods. Binge eating is often linked to stress. A person is stressed, follows a restrictive diet or skips meals. The adrenals release corticosterone. Corticosterone reaches the hypothalamus, hypothalamus releases NPY (neuropeptide Y), a person craces carb rich stratches and sweets. Elevated endorphins also contribute to a pregnant woman’s longings for certain foods (inconjunction with the female hormone progesterone) uncontrollable cravings the 2 wks before her period, sweeth tooth during times of stress, cravings of alcohol in an alcoholic, overeating in obese people, bing eaters and bulimics. The nerve chemicals that dictate your food preference and mood are not housed exclusively in the brain. Some are located in the digestive tract, pancreas, adrenal glands and fat tissue. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone found in both the brain and the small intestine that aids in digestion and contributes to a feeling of satiation. Estrogen in women enhances CCK effectiveness. More CCK released, the slower you digest food and faster you feel full so less you eat. Studies indicate low levels of CCK in people with eating disorders such as bulimia. In contrast AIDS patients have high level of CCK and low endorphin levels so they lose their appetites. It is likely that enterostatin, serotonin, galanin and endorphins work in concert to raise and lower cravings for fatty foods from salad dressing and mayo to meat and chocolate. Numerous scientific studies have shown that the menstrual cycle influences food intake. Healthy women consume 90-500 kcal/day during the luteal phase than during the follicular phase- increase in carb, fat and protein intake. Vit c consumption is lower and increase of intakes of vit D, riboflavin, potassium, phosphorous, and magnesium have been reported. A low-fat diet has been associated with decreased bloating. Caffeine consumption has been associated with an increased prevalence and severity of premenstrual symptoms. There is some evidence that a high-carb low protein meal will improve mood in women with PMS, but few data show that this same effect will occur in healthy women or in women with psychoogic disorders such as depression. Nutritionists in particular should help women focus on managing their food cravings and incorporating the craved foods into a balanced, healthful diet. Numerous biologic factors are postulated to cause food craving. Evidence exists that food deprivation, including self-imposed restriction such as dieting leads to craving. However, decreased cravings have occurred in obese people on low caloric or very low caloric diets. Food cravings have also been attributed to a requirement for a specific nutrient lacking in the diet. For eg Craving of chocolate can be attributed to its magnesium content, although scientific experiments do not generally support this view. It has been suggested that certain foods are craved because they contain substances that influence brain neurochemistry to create a feeling of well-being. Bioactive substances such as tryptophan and carbohydrate both thought to increase brain serotonin levels. Chocolate contains several biologically active compounds including the methylxanthines caffeine and theobromine, precursors phenylaline and tyrosine and biogenic amines phenylethylamine and tyramine. After evaluating the literature in this area, Rogers commented that serious reviews have found little support for the hypothesis that chocolate craving is related to psychoactive constituents. So what does chocolate do to us – It has been suggested that chocolate consumption may elevate mood because it contains several biologically active compounds. Chocolate is a rich source of antioxidants the substances that can block cellular and arterial damage caused by oxidation reactions that go on endlessly in the body. According to researchers at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas , the same antioxidants called Flavinoids found in red wine that protects from heart disease and cancer. Chocolate contains other chemicals that have brain activity tryptophan, the building block of serotonin, a relaxation-inducing neurotransmitter and phenylethylamine, a stimulant related to amphetamine that can improve mood in some depressed people. Phenylethylamine is the chemical released in the brain when people become infatuated or fall in love, and it has bestowed upon chocolate the aura of an aphrodisiac. – New York Times article Valentine to Dark Chocolate, but go easy. Sweet Taste of Beating Sugar Habit – Hubert Herring – I should note that many experts pooh pooh the idea of sugar addiction. It is â€Å"hard to conceive of an ‘addiction’ to a chemical that occurs naturally in all of us,† says Dr Walsh, professor of psychiatry at Columbia. But a sweet taste is certainly â€Å"rewarding† he said â€Å"the brain circuits that are involved in the recognition of reward are the same ones (or at least overlap with the ones) that are involved in addiction† Carb Craving – double blind placebo controlled test of self medication hypothesis – Corsica, Spring Every third testing day, participants were asked to self administer the beverage they preferred based on its previous mood effect. Results showed that, when rendered mildly dysphoric, carbohydrate cravers chose the carbohydrate beverage significantly more often than the protein-rich beverage and reported the prior produced greater mood improvement. The carb beverage was perceived as more palatable by the carbohydrate cravers, although not by independent taste testers. This study supports the existence of a carbohydrate craving syndrome in which carbohydrate self administration improves mildly dysphoric mood. The carb craving syndrome is often defined as a disorder of disturbed appetite and mood, irresistible desire to consume sweet or starchy foods in response to negative states (Wurtman 1990). Mood improvement following carb ingestion is thought to occur via a typtophan mediated increase in brain serotonin potentially alleviating a functional deficiency in brain serotonin and thus serving as self-medication (Spring, Wurtman etc) A significant design flaw in many studies has been that the high carb and high protein foods have differed not only in macronutrient content but it in hedonic and sensory value with the carb options perceived as being more hedonically appealing. A final important design flaw has been the failure to standardize the timing of testing in relation to the female menstrual cycle. Menstrually related effects on mood, appetite and food craving are well-documented and represent a potential confound to the study of macronutrient effects on mood. Carb craving appears to be a predictor of poor response to weight loss treatment – need to understand the mechanisms associated with overweight as well as difficulties with weight loss and weight loss maintenance – many people attribute their weight management difficulties to carb craving, carb craving has been associated with weight increase (spring.. ), there is an epidemic of overweight and obesity in the US. Carbohydrate cravers chose to self administer carb significantly more often than the taste caloric matched protein rich balanced nutrient alternative- according to Corsica, Spring study. The effect of the mood manipulation was analyzed via repeated ANOVA with POMS dysphoria score as the deoebdebt variable and time.. Dysphoria at manipulation check was significantly associated with increased carb craving across all testing days. We tested whether individuals who self-describe as carb cravers and met rig criteria for carb craving would demonstrate carb preference and mood enhance in a double-blind.. trial. Our results demonstrate that in a highly controlled environment, the carb craver appears to successfully and saliently self-medicate mildly dysphoric mood via carb ingestion. Study included participants who were depressed or binge eaters because we believe that this enhances the generalizability of these findings to the population of carb cravers, although this may also introduce additional variability and a potential confound. Post hoc analyses showed that binge eaters didn’t not contribute mood, choice, hunger or palatability data that was significantly different than the other participants. CONCLUSION –disturbed mood and eating patters have consistently been observed among individuals labeled â€Å"carb cravers† The self- administration of carb may be reinforced in car cravers by reduction of unpleasant mood states or possibly by perception of palatability, a pattern that with repetition may result in overweight and obesity. These findings suggest a need to assist carb cravers in identify alternative ways of alleviating dysphoric mood or discomfort other than high caloric carb intake. Chose low calorie carb rich snack foods, increase physical activity or employ cognitive behavioral techniques to reduce dysphoric mood (Spring et al. 1997) Carb craving has been viewed from a biological perspective, it has been suggested that cravings are an expression of an energy or specific nutrient requirement, or that addiction is explained by the presence of a naturally occurring psychoactive compound in the food. Study explains an overview of appetite control and dietary restraint as background to an integrated â€Å"biopsychosocial† perspective on food craving and addiction (chocoholism) Individuals vary in their vulnerability to addiction due to factors such as socioeconomic circumstances and inherited traits – evidence og genetic predisposition to alcoholism and substances vary in their addictive potential according to their capacity to produce positive psychoactive effects and neuroadaptive changes that occur with continued substance use. Why chocolate and other foods might have a relatively high addictive potential. Psychoactive constituents of chocolate- Food craving and self-reported food addiction and cognitive influences of eating. Ambivalence about certain foods that leads to attempts to resist eating them and the heed to provide explanation of why this is difficult and sometimes fails. This does not mean that we regard biological effects of eating are unimportant but merely these form only part of the determinants of human eating behavior and the experiences accompanying eating. Chocolate â€Å"Nice but Naughty† – considered unhealthy food, lacking in nutritional value and stigmatized with overeating and obesity. Attribution – Call me chocoholic, or I am addicted etc.. makes it ok to eat it. Moreishness – â€Å"Causing a desire for more†. There is also a wide overlap of the brain mechanisms underlying the rewarding effects of food and drugs and foods are, like drugs of abuse, strong reinforcers. It may reasonable to label the compulsive eating seen in bulimia and binge eating disorder to addiction, however vast majority should not be viewed that way. Crucially eating does not appear to produce powerful neuroadaptive effects, including associated withdrawal effects, which are central to drug addiction. Self report food craving and â€Å"addiction† gives a prominent role to the psychological processes of ambivalence and attribution, operating together with normal mechanisms of appetite control, the hedonic affects of certain foods and socially and culturally determined perceptions of the appropriate intakes and uses of those foods. – Rogers and SMIT article Megan Brooks article – According to researchers several nutrient factors that could be linked to mood, such as increased caffeine, fat, carb and energy intake, bore no significant correlation with mood symptoms, suggesting relative specificity of chocolate finding. Gordon Parker, MD, PhD, of the School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Australia †¦these personality styles that underpin chocolate cravings reflect â€Å"neuroticism or what we would call emotional dysregulation† Study by Parker, Parer and Brotchie on Mood effects of chocolate suggest that chocolate can provide its own hedonistic reward by satisfying cravings but when consumed as a comfort eating or emotional eating strategy is more likely to be associated with prolongation rather than cessation of a dysphoric mood. Eg – Chocolate has the capacity to lift spirits to create highs and make people feel good. In an earlier review of atypical depression and its constituent feature of hyperphagia (Parker et al) we noted the capacity of carb, including chocolate, to have a comforting effect to also promote ‘feel good’ sensations through the release of multiple gut and brain peptides. Others have argued that carb craving in atypical depression and in seasonal affective disorder is a form of self medication and in having an impact on brain neurotransmitters have antidepressant effects. Orosensory properties of chocolate and the pleasure principle – morishness – once you start you cant stop. Palatability is determined by innate responses such as inborn taste preferences for sweets, fat and salt but a dislike for bitter tastes, and by learning. Post ingestive effects increase gradually with the amount eaten and eating stops when they outweigh the orosensory effects. Craving is experienced during abstinence but ‘moreishness’ is experienced while eating. Heightened responsiveness to increased palatability is often cited as a major factor in the development of obesity and even rats on a highly palatable high-fat or ‘supermarket’ diet will overeat to the point of obesity. Chocolate provides preferred tastes and texture they have innate appeal and the combinations increase the hedonic rating challenging the satiety ceiling that might otherwise apply. Orosensory properties of chocolate outweigh more simple explanations of its role in appetite and satiety. If the appeal is the unique sensory combination of chocolate then chocolate is the only way to satisfy that craving (Michener and Rozin) Another view regards craving for chocolate and carb as a homeostatic response to dietary deficiencies. Emotional eaing – Lyman (1982) has observed that food preference is altered across a range of mood states with preference for ‘junk food’ increased during negative mood states and preference for healthy foods during increasing during positive mood states. A review by Ganley indicated that stress associated eating is more common in those overweight or obese but that mixed results in the research means that direction of association is unclear. Natural tendency during stress is decreased food intake reflecting activation of the sympathetic nervous system (Schachter et al) whereby blood is diverted from the digestive system and other systems not required for defense. Evidence- Meisel et al showed a marked increase in body weight in female Syrian hamsters when socially stressed by being caged, finding greatly enlarged adrenal glands. Morely et al. showed increase in sucrose ingestion in response to stress. Although eating when stressed is inconsistent with the intrinsic physiological stress reponse, t occurs in real life and is supported empirically with stress thought to disrupt restraint and post-ingestional satiety feedback. Finally a review by Reid and Hammersley examining all studies on human subjects since 1983 dealing with the effects of carbs on arousal found half the studies reported some effect on alertness after consumption of a carb snack with individuals feeling relaxed or sleepy, but no specific effect on mood. In summary, it appears that emotional eating fails to produce any real or lasting benefit to psychological and mood states and that increased or repeated emotional eating may actually contribute to mood dysphoria. Chocolate craving is driven by a desire for hedonic reward and dopamine (responsible for reward) is the predominant neurotransmitter released after eating chocolate for the purpose of a pleasurable sensory experience. In contrast emotional eating is characterized by carb craving and is motivated by desire for the comforting effect of opioids (endorphins) to alleviate dysphoria and other negative states. Evidence that infusing antagonist naloxone reduced caloric intake in binge eaters, as well as the taste preference for sweet high-fat foods such as biscuits and chocolate in both binge eaters and in controls. Benton (2002) reported that poor mood stimulates eating of palatable high carb food leading to endorphin release. No chocolate substitute when crave chocolate (Rozin) but when crave carb hen any sweet fat food was consumed. Chocolate produces unique effect